Kaiserslautern - Fachbereich Maschinenbau und Verfahrenstechnik
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With the burgeoning computing power available, multiscale modelling and simulation has these days become increasingly capable of capturing the details of physical processes on different scales. The mechanical behavior of solids is oftentimes the result of interaction between multiple spatial and temporal scales at different levels and hence it is a typical phenomena of interest exhibiting multiscale characteristic. At the most basic level, properties of solids can be attributed to atomic interactions and crystal structure that can be described on nano scale. Mechanical properties at the macro scale are modeled using continuum mechanics for which we mention stresses and strains. Continuum models, however they offer an efficient way of studying material properties they are not accurate enough and lack microstructural information behind the microscopic mechanics that cause the material to behave in a way it does. Atomistic models are concerned with phenomenon at the level of lattice thereby allowing investigation of detailed crystalline and defect structures, and yet the length scales of interest are inevitably far beyond the reach of full atomistic computation and is rohibitively expensive. This makes it necessary the need for multiscale models. The bottom line and a possible avenue to this end is, coupling different length scales, the continuum and the atomistics in accordance with standard procedures. This is done by recourse to the Cauchy-Born rule and in so doing, we aim at a model that is efficient and reasonably accurate in mimicking physical behaviors observed in nature or laboratory. In this work, we focus on concurrent coupling based on energetic formulations that links the continuum to atomistics. At the atomic scale, we describe deformation of the solid by the displaced positions of atoms that make up the solid and at the continuum level deformation of the solid is described by the displacement field that minimize the total energy. In the coupled model, continuum-atomistic, a continuum formulation is retained as the overall framework of the problem and the atomistic feature is introduced by way of constitutive description, with the Cauchy-Born rule establishing the point of contact. The entire formulation is made in the framework of nonlinear elasticity and all the simulations are carried out within the confines of quasistatic settings. The model gives direct account to measurable features of microstructures developed by crystals through sequential lamination.
In this work the investigation of a (Ti, Al, Si) N system was done. The main point of investigation was to study the possibility of getting the nanocomposite coatings structures by deposition of multilayer films from TiN, AlSiN, . This tries to understand the relation between the mechanical properties (hardness, Young s modulus), and the microstructure (nanocrystalline with individual phases). Particularly special attention was given to the temperature effects on microstructural changes in annealing at 600 °C for the coatings. The surface hardness, elastic modulus, and the multilayers diffusion and compositions were the test tools for the comparison between the different coated samples with and without annealing at 600 °C. To achieve this object a rectangular aluminum vacuum chamber with three unbalanced sputtering magnetrons for the deposition of thin film coatings from different materials was constructed The chamber consists mainly of two chambers, the pre-vacuum chamber to load the workpiece, and the main vacuum chamber where the sputtering deposition of the thin film coatings take place. The workpiece is moving on a car travel on a railway between the two chambers to the position of the magnetrons by step motors. The chambers are divided by a self constructed rectangular gate controlled manually from outside the chamber. The chamber was sealed for vacuum use using glue and screws. Therefore, different types of glue were tested not only for its ability to develop an uniform thin layer in the gap between the aluminum plates to seal the chamber for vacuum use, but also low outgassing rates which made it suitable for vacuum use. A epoxy was able to fulfill this tasks. The evacuation characteristics of the constructed chamber was improved by minimizing the inner surface outgassing rate. Therefore, the throughput outgassing rate test method was used in the comparisons between the selected two aluminum materials (A2017 and A5353) samples short time period (one hour) outgassing rates. Different machining methods and treatments for the inner surface of the vacuum chamber were tested. The machining of the surface of material A (A2017) with ethanol as coolant fluid was able to reduce its outgassing rate a factor of 6 compared with a non-machined sample surface of the same material. The reduction of the surface porous oxide layer on the top of the aluminum surface by the pickling process with HNO3 acid, and the protection of it by producing another passive non-porous oxides layer using anodizing process will protect the surface for longer time and will minimize the outgassing rates even under humid atmosphere The residual gas analyzer (RGA) 6. Summary test shows that more than 85% of the gases inside the test chamber were water vapour (H2O) and the rests are (N2, H2, CO), so liquid nitrogen water vapor trap can enhance the chamber pumping down process. As a result it was possible to construct a chamber that can be pumped down using a turbo molecular pump (450 L/s) to the range of 1x10-6 mbar within one hour of evacuations where the chamber volume is 160 Litters and the inner surface area is 1.6 m2. This is a good base pressure for the process of sputtering deposition of hard thin film coatings. Multilayer thin film coating was deposited to demonstrate that nanostructured thin film within the (Ti, Al, Si) N system could be prepared by reactive magnetron sputtering of multi thin film layers of TiN, AlSiN. The (SNMS) spectrometry of the test samples show that a complete diffusion between the different deposited thin film coating layers in each sample takes place, even at low substrate deposition temperature. The high magnetic flux of the unbalanced magnetrons and the high sputtering power were able to produce a high ion-toatom flux, which give high mobility to the coated atoms. The interactions between the high mobility of the coated atoms and the ion-to-atom flux were sufficient to enhance the diffusion between the different deposited thin layers. It was shown from the XRD patterns for this system that the structure of the formed mixture consists of two phases. One phase is noted as TiN bulk and another detected unknown amorphous phase, which can be SiNx or AlN or a combination of Ti-Al-Si-N. As a result we where able to deposit a nanocomposite coatings by the deposition of multilayers from TiN, AlSiN thin film coatings using the constructed vacuum chamber
Hydrogels are known to be covalently or ionic cross-linked, hydrophilic three-dimensional
polymer networks, which exist in our bodies in a biological gel form such as the vitreous
humour that fills the interior of the eyes. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (poly(NIPAAm))
hydrogels are attracting more interest in biomedical applications because, besides others, they
exhibit a well-defined lower critical solution temperature (LCST) in water, around 31–34°C,
which is close to the body temperature. This is considered to be of great interest in drug
delivery, cell encapsulation, and tissue engineering applications. In this work, the
poly(NIPAAm) hydrogel is synthesized by free radical polymerization. Hydrogel properties
and the dimensional changes accompanied with the volume phase transition of the
thermosensitive poly(NIPAAm) hydrogel were investigated in terms of Raman spectra,
swelling ratio, and hydration. The thermal swelling/deswelling changes that occur at different
equilibrium temperatures and different solutions (phenol, ethanol, propanol, and sodium
chloride) based on Raman spectrum were investigated. In addition, Raman spectroscopy has
been employed to evaluate the diffusion aspects of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and phenol
through the poly(NIPAAm) network. The determination of the mutual diffusion coefficient,
\(D_{mut}\) for hydrogels/solvent system was achieved successfully using Raman spectroscopy at
different solute concentrations. Moreover, the mechanical properties of the hydrogel, which
were investigated by uniaxial compression tests, were used to characterize the hydrogel and to
determine the collective diffusion coefficient through the hydrogel. The solute release coupled
with shrinking of the hydrogel particles was modelled with a bi-dimensional diffusion model
with moving boundary conditions. The influence of the variable diffusion coefficient is
observed and leads to a better description of the kinetic curve in the case of important
deformation around the LCST. A good accordance between experimental and calculated data
was obtained.
Entwicklung von Fermentationsstrategien zur stofflichen Nutzung von nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
(2022)
Biertreber stellt einen wichtigen Vertreter eines nachwachsenden Rohstoffes dar, da es sich dabei um ein niedrigpreisiges Nebenprodukt des Brauprozesses handelt, welches jedes Jahr in großen Mengen anfällt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde Biertreber aus sieben verschiedenen Braurezepten, sowohl aus eigener Herstellung als auch industriellen Ursprungs, analysiert und in Bezug auf die zugrundeliegenden Braugänge klassifiziert. Darüber hinaus wurde der Treber durch Pressen in zwei separate Stoffströme aufgeteilt: eine flüssige und eine feste Fraktion. Für beide Fraktionen wurden Bioprozesse etabliert, um einerseits das flüssige Substrat (Treberpresssaft) mit einem Milchsäurebakterium (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis) zu Milchsäure und andererseits das feste Substrat (Treberrückstand) mit einem lignocellulolytischen und gemischtsäuregärung-betreibenden Stamm (Cellulomonas uda) zu Ethanol und Essigsäure umzusetzen. Außerdem wurde ein kinetisches Modell aufgestellt, welches u.a. die Milchsäurebildung und das Zellwachstum von L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis für drei Treberpresssäfte unterschiedlicher Braurezepturen, d.h. mit unterschiedlicher Nährstoffausstattung, in einer simultanen Verzuckerung und Fermentation vorhersagen konnte. Des Weiteren konnten die entwickelten Fermentationsstrategien zur Verwertung des Treberpresssaftes und Treberrückstandes sowie die zugrundeliegenden Prozessüberwachungs- und Regelungsstrategien auf Fermentationen mit den gleichen Organismen aber dem Substrat Wiesenschnitt – also einen weiteren nachwachsenden Rohstoff – übertragen werden.
This research explores the development of web based reference software for
characterisation of surface roughness for two-dimensional surface data. The reference software used for verification of surface characteristics makes the evaluation methods easier for clients. The algorithms used in this software
are based on International ISO standards. Most software used in industrial measuring
instruments may give variations in the parameters calculated due to numerical changes in
calculation. Such variations can be verified using the proposed reference software.
The evaluation of surface roughness is carried out in four major steps: data capture, data
align, data filtering and parameter calculation. This work walks through each of these steps
explaining how surface profiles are evaluated by pre-processing steps called fitting and
filtering. The analysis process is then followed by parameter evaluation according to DIN EN
ISO 4287 and DIN EN ISO 13565-2 standards to extract important information from the
profile to characterise surface roughness.
The growing computational power enables the establishment of the Population Balance Equation (PBE)
to model the steady state and dynamic behavior of multiphase flow unit operations. Accordingly, the twophase
flow
behavior inside liquid-liquid extraction equipment is characterized by different factors. These
factors include: interactions among droplets (breakage and coalescence), different time scales due to the
size distribution of the dispersed phase, and micro time scales of the interphase diffusional mass transfer
process. As a result of this, the general PBE has no well known analytical solution and therefore robust
numerical solution methods with low computational cost are highly admired.
In this work, the Sectional Quadrature Method of Moments (SQMOM) (Attarakih, M. M., Drumm, C.,
Bart, H.-J. (2009). Solution of the population balance equation using the Sectional Quadrature Method of
Moments (SQMOM). Chem. Eng. Sci. 64, 742-752) is extended to take into account the continuous flow
systems in spatial domain. In this regard, the SQMOM is extended to solve the spatially distributed
nonhomogeneous bivariate PBE to model the hydrodynamics and physical/reactive mass transfer
behavior of liquid-liquid extraction equipment. Based on the extended SQMOM, two different steady
state and dynamic simulation algorithms for hydrodynamics and mass transfer behavior of liquid-liquid
extraction equipment are developed and efficiently implemented. At the steady state modeling level, a
Spatially-Mixed SQMOM (SM-SQMOM) algorithm is developed and successfully implemented in a onedimensional
physical spatial domain. The integral spatial numerical flux is closed using the mean mass
droplet diameter based on the One Primary and One Secondary Particle Method (OPOSPM which is the
simplest case of the SQMOM). On the other hand the hydrodynamics integral source terms are closed
using the analytical Two-Equal Weight Quadrature (TEqWQ). To avoid the numerical solution of the
droplet rise velocity, an analytical solution based on the algebraic velocity model is derived for the
particular case of unit velocity exponent appearing in the droplet swarm model. In addition to this, the
source term due to mass transport is closed using OPOSPM. The resulting system of ordinary differential
equations with respect to space is solved using the MATLAB adaptive Runge–Kutta method (ODE45). At
the dynamic modeling level, the SQMOM is extended to a one-dimensional physical spatial domain and
resolved using the finite volume method. To close the mathematical model, the required quadrature nodes
and weights are calculated using the analytical solution based on the Two Unequal Weights Quadrature
(TUEWQ) formula. By applying the finite volume method to the spatial domain, a semi-discreet ordinary
differential equation system is obtained and solved. Both steady state and dynamic algorithms are
extensively validated at analytical, numerical, and experimental levels. At the numerical level, the
predictions of both algorithms are validated using the extended fixed pivot technique as implemented in
PPBLab software (Attarakih, M., Alzyod, S., Abu-Khader, M., Bart, H.-J. (2012). PPBLAB: A new
multivariate population balance environment for particulate system modeling and simulation. Procedia
Eng. 42, pp. 144-562). At the experimental validation level, the extended SQMOM is successfully used
to model the steady state hydrodynamics and physical and reactive mass transfer behavior of agitated
liquid-liquid extraction columns under different operating conditions. In this regard, both models are
found efficient and able to follow liquid extraction column behavior during column scale-up, where three
column diameters were investigated (DN32, DN80, and DN150). To shed more light on the local
interactions among the contacted phases, a reduced coupled PBE and CFD framework is used to model
the hydrodynamic behavior of pulsed sieve plate columns. In this regard, OPOSPM is utilized and
implemented in FLUENT 18.2 commercial software as a special case of the SQMOM. The dropletdroplet
interactions
(breakage
and
coalescence)
are
taken
into
account
using
OPOSPM,
while
the
required
information
about
the
velocity
field
and
energy
dissipation
is
calculated
by
the
CFD
model.
In
addition
to
this,
the proposed coupled OPOSPM-CFD framework is extended to include the mass transfer. The
proposed framework is numerically tested and the results are compared with the published experimental
data. The required breakage and coalescence parameters to perform the 2D-CFD simulation are estimated
using PPBLab software, where a 1D-CFD simulation using a multi-sectional gird is performed. A very
good agreement is obtained at the experimental and the numerical validation levels.
Continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastics are a high competitive material class for
diversified applications because of their inherent properties like light-weight construction
potential, integral design, corrosion resistance and high energy absorption level.
Using these materials, one approach towards a large volume scaled part production
rate is covered by an automated process line, consisting of a pressing process for
semi-finised sheet material production, a thermoforming step and some additional
joining technologies. To allow short cycle times in the thermoforming step, the utilised
semi-finished sheet materials, which are often referred to as “organic sheets”, have
to be fully impregnated and consolidated.
Nowadays even this combination of outstanding physical and chemical material
properties combined with the economic processing technology are no guarantee for
the break-through of continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastics, mainly because of
the high material costs for the semi-finished sheet materials. These costs can be attributed
to a non adapted material selection or choice of process parameters, as well
as by unfavourable pressing process type itself.
Therefore the aim of the present investigations was to generate some alternatives
regarding the choice of raw materials, the set-up or the selection of the pressing
process line and to provide some theoretical tools for the determination of process
parameters and dimensions.
Concerning raw material aspects, the use of the blending technology is one promising
approach towards cost reduction for the matrix component. Novel characteristics
related to the fibre structure are CF-yarns with high filament numbers (e.g. 6K or 12K instead of 3K) or multiaxial fibre orientations. These two approaches were both conducted
for sheet materials with carbon fibre reinforcement and high temperature
thermoplastics.
Two new developed ternary blend matrices consisting of PEEK and PEI as the main
ingredients were tested in comparison with neat PEEK. PES and PSU were used as
the third blend component, which provides a cost reduction potential of approximately
30 % compared to the basis PEEK polymer. The results of the static pressing experiments
pointed out that the processing behaviour of the new blends is similar to
the neat PEEK matrix. A maximum process temperature of 410 °C should not be surpassed, otherwise thermal degradation will occur and will have a negative influence
on mechanical laminat properties. To accelerate the impregnation progress a
process pressure of 25 bar in combination with a sidewise opened tooling concept is
helpful. No differences were identified if film-stacking technique was substituted by
powder-prepreg-technology or vice versa. By increasing the yarn filament number
from 3K over 6K to 12K, which is equal to an increase in bundle diameter and therefore
transverse flow distance, the impregnation time has to be extended. If unspread
yarns are used, the risk of void entrapment rises tremendously, especially with 12K
and UD-structures. To reach full impregnation with a woven 6K-fabric, an increase of
process time of 20 to 30 % compared to a 3K textile structure is required. Furthermore,
it was shown that if only transverse flow is used for the impregnation of a UDstructure,
a maximum area weight of 300-400 g/m² should not be exceeded. Additionally,
the transport of air is strictly affected by the fibre orientation, because the
main amount of displaced air runs in longitudinal fibre direction. These facts play an
important role in the design of a multaxial laminat or an impregnation process for
such a structure and have to be taken into account.
Apart from these static pressing experiments the semi-continuous (stepwise compression
moulding) and continuous (double belt press processing) processing technology
were investigated and compared to each other. The first basic processing
trails on the stepwise compression moulding equipment were carried out with the material
system GF/PA66. Whereas the processing behaviour of this material combination
in a double belt press is known quite well, there is only little information about
semi-continuous processing. The performed trials pointed out that the resulting laminate
quality for both technologies only differs in the achievable local surface quality.
Mechanical laminate properties like three point bending stiffness and strength are
directly comparable. Due to the fact that there is only small experience with the stepwise
compression moulding process, potential improvements regarding surface Quality are feasible by adapting the step procedure and the temperature distribution within
the tooling concept. If laminates, produced by semi-continuous processing, are deployed
in a thermoforming process or in a non visible structural application, the surface
appearance only plays an inferior role.
The present results with high temperature thermoplastic matrices and CF do confirm
the positive assessment for the stepwise compression moulding technology, even though the mechanical laminate values have only reached 90 % of the data received
by static press processing. In comparison to the data from literature, 90 % is already
a high mechanical performance level. The results are quite promising for the use of
the semi-continuous technology, despite the process set-up and processing parameters
not being optimised. Furthermore there are tremendous advantages in processing
equipment costs.
Finally a process model was developed based on the experimental data pool. This
model can be characterised as a tool, which provides useful boundary conditions and
dimension values for the selection of a certain pressing process depending on the
desired material combination, laminate thickness and production output. The applicability
and accuracy of the model was proofed by a direct comparison between experimental
and calculated data.
First of all the temperature profile of the pressing process was generalised by a very
common structure. This profile reflects the main characteristics for the processing of
a thermoplastic composite material. Depending on the material combination, the
laminate thickness and the occurring heat transfers, several process- and processing-
portfolios were calculated. For a defined combination of the aforementioned parameters,
these portfolios directly provide the periods of time for heating and cooling
of the laminate structure. The last step is to convert these information into an equipment
dimension and to decide which machinery configuration fulfils these requirements.
The detection and characterisation of undesired lead structures on shaft surfaces is a concern in production and quality control of rotary shaft lip-type sealing systems. The potential lead structures are generally divided into macro and micro lead based on their characteristics and formation. Macro lead measurement methods exist and are widely applied. This work describes a method to characterise micro lead on ground shaft surfaces. Micro lead is known as the deviation of main orientation of the ground micro texture from circumferential direction. Assessing the orientation of microscopic structures with arc minute accuracy with regard to circumferential direction requires exact knowledge of both the shaft’s orientation and the direction of surface texture. The shaft’s circumferential direction is found by calibration. Measuring systems and calibration procedures capable of calibrating shaft axis orientation with high accuracy and low uncertainty are described. The measuring systems employ areal-topographic measuring instruments suited for evaluating texture orientation. A dedicated evaluation scheme for texture orientation is based on the Radon transform of these topographies and parametrised for the application. Combining the calibration of circumferential direction with the evaluation of texture orientation the method enables the measurement of micro lead on ground shaft surfaces.
Einfluss verschiedener Angussszenarien auf den Harzinjektionsprozess und dessen simulative Abbildung
(2014)
Die Herstellung von hochleistungs Kunststoff Verbunden für Strukturbauteile erfolgt
in der Automobilindustrie mittels Resin Transfer Molding (RTM), wobei die Kosten für
die Bauteile sehr hoch sind. Die Kosten müssen durch Prozessoptimierungen deutlich
reduziert werden, um eine breite Anwendung von faserverstärkten Kunststoff
Verbunde zu ermöglichen. Prozesssimulationen spielen hierbei eine entscheidende
Rolle, da zeitaufwendige und kostspielige Praxisversuche ersetzt werden können.
Aus diesem Grund wurden in dieser Arbeit die Potentiale der simulativen Abbbildung
des RTM-Prozesses untersucht. Basis der Simulationen bildete eine umfangreiche
Materialparameterstudie bei der die Permeabilität, von für die Automobilindustrie relevanten
Textilhalbzeugen im ungescherten und gescherten Zustand, untersucht
wurde. Somit konnte der Einfluss von Drapierung bei der Fließsimulation evaluiert
werden. Zudem wurde eine neue Methode zur Ermittlung der zeit-, vernetzungs- und
temperaturabhängigen Viskositätsverläufe von hochreaktiven Harzsystemen entwickelt
und angewendet. Die Fließsimulationsmethode wurde zunächst erfolgreich an
einem ebenen Plattenwerkzeug validiert, um zu zeigen, dass die ermittelten Materialparameter
korrekt bestimmt wurden.
Zur Validierung der Simulation wurde ein komplexes Technologieträgerwerkzeug
(TTW) entwickelt. Die Auslegung der Temperierung wurde mittels Temperiersimulationen
unterstützt. Untersuchungen an markanten Kantenbereichen, wie sie bei Automobilbauteilen
häufig auftreten, haben gezeigt, dass bei Kantenradien < 5 mm ein
Voreilen des Harzsystem zu beachten ist. Zudem konnte mittels verschiedener Angussleisten,
der Einfluss verschiedener Angussszenarien untersucht werden.
Mit Hilfe von Sensoren im TTW wurden die Prozessdaten protokolliert und anschließend
mit den Simulationen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die simulative
Abbildung des Füllprozesses bei einem komplexen RTM-Werkzeug, trotz einer Vielzahl
an Prozesseinflüssen, möglich ist. Die Abweichungen zwischen der Simulation
und dem Versuch lagen teilweise unter 15 %. Die Belastbarkeit der ermittelten Permeabilitäts-
und Viskositätswerte wurde dadurch nochmals bestätigt. Zudem zeigte
sich, dass die Angussleistenlänge einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Prozesszeit
hat, wohingegen der Angussleistenquerschnitt eine untergeordnete Rolle spielt.
Modern microtechnology has the central task of ensuring technological progress through the miniaturization and reduction of component dimensions. Micro grinding with micro pencil grinding tools (MPGTs) has established itself as a manufacturing process in microtechnology, especially for the machining of hard and brittle materials. The process has been investigated by numerous researchers. Yet, tools with diameters of <100 μm, could not satisfy the needs of the industry. The tool life of MPGTs was insufficient, their feed rates were too slow for a mean-ingful application and both the MPGTs, and their microstructures were not reproducible. Therefore, this dissertation is dedicated to the task of investigating and revising the complete manu-facturing process and application methodology of these tools. New substrate geometries and materials are investigated. Surface treatment methods are investigated to increase adhesion between the abrasive layer and the substrate. In addition, conventional coating processes like electroplating are replaced by an autocatalytic electroless plating process, that has a much higher reproducibility rate of MPGTs with diameters of about 50 μm and less. The micro grinding methodology is optimized by parameter studies, and new coolant supplying methods with new metalworking fluids, which are introduced to achieve the best possible result when machining 16MnCr5.