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In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird das Verhalten von thermoplastischen
Verbundwerkstoffen mittels experimentellen und numerischen Untersuchungen
betrachtet. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchungen ist die Identifikation und Quantifikation
des Versagensverhaltens und der Energieabsorptionsmechanismen von geschichteten,
quasi-isotropen thermoplastischen Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden und die Umsetzung
der gewonnenen Einsichten in Eigenschaften und Verhalten eines Materialmodells zur
Vorhersage des Crash-Verhaltens dieser Werkstoffe in transienten Analysen.
Vertreter der untersuchten Klassen sind un- und mittel-vertreckte Rundgestricke und
glasfaserverstärkte Thermoplaste (GMT). Die Untersuchungen an rundgestrickten
glasfaser-(GF)-verstärktem Polyethylentherephthalat (PET) waren Teil eines
Forschungsprojektes zur Charakterisierung sowohl der Verarbeitbarkeit als auch des
mechanischen Verhaltens. Experimente an GMT und Schnittfaser-GMT wurden
ebenfalls zum Vergleich mit dem Gestrick durchgeführt und dienen als Bestätigung
des beobachteten Verhaltens des Gestrickes.
Besonderer Aufmerksamkeit wird der Einfluß der Probengeometrie auf die Resultate
gewidmet, weil die Crash-Charakteristiken wesentlich von der Geometrie des
getesteten Probekörpers abhängen. Hierzu wurde ein Rundhutprofil zur Untersuchung
dieses Einflußes definiert. Diese spezielle Geometrie hat insbesondere Vorteile
hinsichtlich Energieabsorptionsvermögen sowie Herstellbarkeit von thermoplastischen
Verbundwerkstoffen (TPCs). Es wurden Impakt- und Perforationsversuche zur
Untersuchung der Schädigungsausbreitung und zur Charakterisierung der Zähigkeit
der untersuchten Materialien durchgeführt.
Geschichtete TPCs versagen hauptsächlich in einem Laminat-Biegemodus mit
kombiniertem intra- und interlaminaren Schub (transversaler Schub zwischen Lagen und teilweise mit transversalen Schubbrüchen in einzelnen Lagen). Durch eine
Kopplung der aktuellen Versagensmodi und Crash-Kennwerten wie der mittleren
Crash-Spannung, konnten Indikationen über die Relation zwischen Materialparameter
und absoluter Energieabsorption gewonnen werden.
Numerische Untersuchungen wurden mit einem expliziten Finiten Elemente-
Programm zur Simulation von dreidimensionalen, großen Verformungen durchgeführt.
Das Modell besteht bezüglich des Querschnittaufbaus aus einer mesoskopischen
Darstellung, die zwischen Matrix-zwischenlagen und mesoskopischen Verbundwerkstofflagen unterscheidet. Die Modellgeometrie stellt einen vereinfachten
Längsquerschnitt durch den Probekörper dar. Dabei wurden Einflüsse der Reibung
zwischen Impaktor und Material sowie zwischen einzelnen Lagen berücksichtigt.
Auch die lokal herrschende Dehnrate, Energie und Spannungs-Dehnungsverteilung
über die mesoskopischen Phasen konnten beobachtet werden. Dieses Modell zeigt
deutlich die verschiedenen Effekte, die durch den heterogenen Charakter des Laminats
entstehen, und gibt auch Hinweise für einige Erklärungen dieser Effekte.
Basierend auf den Resultaten der obengenannten Untersuchungen wurde ein
phänomenologisches Modell mit a-priori Information des inherenten
Materialverhaltens vorgeschlagen. Daher, daß das Crashverhalten vom heterogenen
Charakter des Werkstoffes dominiert wird, werden im Modell die Phasen separat
betrachtet. Eine einfache Methode zur Bestimmung der mesoskopischen Eigenschaften
wird diskutiert.
Zur Beschreibung des Verhaltens vom thermoplastischen Matrixsystem während
„Crushing“ würde ein dehnraten- und temperaturabhängiges Plastizitätsgesetz
ausreichen. Für die Beschreibung des Verhaltens der Verbundwerkstoffschichten wird
eine gekoppelte Plastizitäts- und Schädigungsformulierung vorgeschlagen. Ein solches
Modell kann sowohl den plastischen Anteil des Matrixsystems als auch das
„Softening“ - verursacht durch Faser-Matrix-Grenzflächenversagen und Faserbrüche -
beschreiben. Das vorgeschlagene Modell unterscheidet zwischen Belastungsfällen für
axiales „Crushing“ und Versagen ohne „Crushing“. Diese Unterteilung ermöglicht
eine explizite Modellierung des Werkstoffes unter Berücksichtigung des spezifischen
Materialzustandes und der Geometrie für den außerordentlichen Belastungsfall, der
zum progressiven Versagen führt.
Das Crashverhalten energieabsorbierender Strukturen aus faserverstärkten
Kunststoffen, die während ihres Gebrauchs wechselnden Temperaturen ausgesetzt
sind, wurde bislang nur wenig erforscht. Typische Anwendungstemperaturen in der
Automobilindustrie, ausgenommen Bauteile, welche direkt mit dem Motor verbunden
sind, bewegen sich zwischen -40 und 100 °C. Da ein polymeres Matrixsystem in
diesem Temperaturbereich stark veränderliche Festigkeiten und Steifigkeiten
aufweist, variieren auch die mechanischen Eigenschaften eines Faser-Kunststoff-
Verbundes (FKV). Dies gilt insbesondere bei Druckbelastungen, da gerade hier die
Fasern auf die Stützwirkung der Matrix angewiesen sind.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der experimentellen Untersuchung des
Crashverhaltens gewebeverstärkter Thermoplaste und deren numerischer Simulation
unter dem Einfluss der Umgebungstemperatur. Da Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunde beim
Crashvorgang ein stark von der Belastungsgeschwindigkeit abhängiges Kraftniveau
aufweisen, muss die Crashprüfung im relevanten Geschwindigkeitsbereich oberhalb
ca. 4 km/h durchgeführt werden können. Hierzu wird die Crashanlage der Institut für
Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH (IVW) um eine Klimatisierungseinrichtung für Crashversuche
erweitert.
Die Versuche werden erstmals an Strukturen aus glas- und kohlenstoffgewebeverstärkten
technischen Thermoplasten (verschiedene Polyamide und Polycarbonat)
im Temperaturbereich zwischen –30 und 90 °C durchgeführt. Dabei zeigt sich, dass
die Umgebungstemperatur einen deutlichen Einfluss auf das Crashverhalten hat und
bei der Auslegung energieabsorbierender Strukturen berücksichtigt werden muss.
Die hierfür verantwortlichen Materialparameter werden identifiziert, um eine Aussage
über geeignete Faser-Matrix-Kombinationen für temperaturbelastete Bauteile treffen
zu können.
Die wesentlichen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sind:
• Die Temperaturabhängigkeit des Schubmoduls der Matrix und die Crashkennwerte des Verbundes (Mittelkraft und spezifisch absorbierte Energie) stehen
in direktem Zusammenhang. Dies gilt insbesondere beim Versagen des FKV im
Laminatbiegemode.
• Teilkristalline Thermoplaste, auch hochtemperaturbeständige Thermoplaste wie
PEEK, eignen sich wegen der starken Abhängigkeit des Schubmoduls von der
Temperatur nur begrenzt als Matrixsystem für crashbelastete Strukturen.
• Amorphe Thermoplaste, deren Glasübergangstemperatur über der Einsatztemperatur
des Absorbers liegt, zeigen nur einen geringen Abfall des Kraftniveaus
bei zunehmender Temperatur und sind daher zu bevorzugen.
Die derzeit in FE-Programmen implementierten Materialmodelle ermöglichen nicht
die gewünschte Prognosefähigkeit bei der Crashsimulation von Strukturen aus
gewebeverstärkten Thermoplasten, da die komplexen Versagensmechanismen nicht
erfasst werden. Am Beispiel von kohlenstoffgewebeverstärktem Polyamid 12 wird
das Versagensverhalten der experimentell untersuchten Crashabsorber analysiert
und die erforderlichen crashrelevanten Kennwerte ermittelt. Dabei ist das Nachversagensverhalten
unter Druckbelastung von besonderer Bedeutung. Um dieses zu
untersuchen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ein Druckversuch definiert und eine
Vorgehensweise zur Bestimmung der erforderlichen Versagensparameter vorgestellt.
Die erzielten Simulationsergebnisse korrelieren mit den experimentell ermittelten
Werten im untersuchten Temperaturbereich sehr gut.
Die Arbeit entstand vor dem Hintergrund, daß bestehende Verschleißmodelle sich nicht
beliebig auf jedes tribologische System übertragen lassen. Aus diesem Grund sollte auf Basis
der finiten Elemente ein Werkzeug zum grundlegenden Verständnis der Gleitverschleißmechanismen
geschaffen werden, welches systemunabhängig einsetzbar ist.
Zur Gleitverschleißmodellierung mit Hilfe der Methode der finiten Elemente (FE) mußte
vorab eine genaue Bestimmung der Verschleißmechanismen sowie der Materialkennwerte zur
Charakterisierung der Kontaktverhältnisse von Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund (FKV) / Stahl
Reibpaarungen durchgeführt werden. Die Reibungs- und Verschleißeigenschaften des
genannten tribologischen Systems wurden mittels Modellverschleißversuchen nach dem Stift-
Scheibe-Verfahren innerhalb eines Temperaturbereiches von Raumtemperatur bis T=180°C
bestimmt. Eine mechanische Charakterisierung erfolgte anhand von Zug-, Druck- und
Scherversuchen auf einer statischen Prüfmaschine. Die verschlissenen Probenoberflächen
wurden anschließend mit verschiedenen mikroskopischen Verfahren charakterisiert.
Wichtigstes Ergebnis dieser Untersuchungen war die starke Abhängigkeit des
Verschleißbetrages und der wirkenden Verschleißmechanismen von der Faserorientierung
und der Prüftemperatur.
Zur Berechnung der Spannungszustände im Reibkontakt wurde ein dreidimensionaler
anisotroper Kontaktalgorithmus entwickelt. Zur Überprüfung dieses Kontaktalgorithmus
wurden Kugeleindruckversuche an endlos kohlenstoffaserverstärktem PEEK durchgeführt. Es
konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Modellierung sehr gut mit den experimentellen Ergebnissen
übereinstimmte.
Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wurde dieser Algorithmus zur Modellierung der wahren
Kontaktverhältnisse herangezogen. Eine mikromechanische Charakterisierung der Materialien
sowie die Bestimmung der Verschleißmechanismen unter Einzelrauhigkeitsspitzenkontakt wurde mit Hilfe von Mikrohärteversuchen bzw. Kratzversuchen durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse
der Spannungsanalyse bestätigen die experimentell ermittelten Versagens- bzw.
Verschleißmechanismen unter Belastung einzelner Rauhigkeitsspitzen. Im Falle normaler
Faserorientierung fanden Spannungsüberhöhungen in den Fasern und im Faser/Matrix-
Grenzbereich statt, welche zu Faserbruch und Faser/Matrix-Delamination führen können. Unter paralleler und antiparalleler Faserorientierung wurden die Fasern hauptsächlich
Biegung ausgesetzt. Weiterhin herrschten im Faser/Matrix-Grenzbereich Scherspannungen,
die zu Faser/Matrix-Delamination führen.
Eine Modellierung des thermischen Verhaltens einer CF/PEEK - Stahl - Reibpaarung zeigte,
daß im Kontaktbereich Schmelztemperaturen vorliegen können. Weiterhin war eine starke
Abhängigkeit des Wärmeflusses von der Faserorientierung zu verzeichnen. Anhand der
Definition von Peclet-Nummern für anisotrope Verbundwerkstoffe konnte, abhängig von der
Faserorientierung, zwischen langsam und schnell gleitenden Reibpaarungen unterschieden
werden.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß sich mit Hilfe der Methode der finiten Elemente über
herrschende Spannungszustände in sehr guter Annäherung die Gleitverschleißmechanismen
von CF/PEEK - Stahl - Reibpaarungen beschreiben lassen. Letze Aufgabe bleibt nun die
Bestimmung einer Kenngröße zur Abschätzung des Materialverschleißes in Abhängigkeit von
den Spannungszuständen im Mikrobereich.
Fibre Reinforced Composites (FRC) have gained in importance for the past several years. Due
to its high specific strength this material group offers great potentials in weight reduction. Not
only metals, like steel or aluminium, but also wood or plastics can be substituted by FRC. The
advantages of fibre reinforced composites range from low specific weight, chemical and
corrosion resistance, adjustable electrical, acoustic and thermal properties to integration of
functions by integral design.
Composites are separated into thermosets that can be cured, and thermoplastics that can be
melted and thermoformed. Thermosets can not be recycled by preheating and forming,
pressing or injection moulding like thermoplastics. Especially in view of the regulation
concerning the disposal of wrecked cars the possibility to recycle Fibre Reinforced
Thermoplastics (FRT) should increase their applications and sales.
Large sales volumes are achieved using Glass Mat reinforced Thermoplastics (GMT) or Long
Fibre reinforced Thermoplastics (LFT). This material is utilised in the manufacturing of parts
like front ends and underbody protections for the automotive industry. But GMT and LFT
have lower mechanical properties than fabric reinforced thermoplastics, so-called organic
sheets.
These fully impregnated organic sheets consist of reinforcement up to 50 Vol%. The semifinished
material is manufactured in double belt or static presses. In a second step the sheets
or laminates are formed to the desired shape by heating them in an infrared-heater, then
transferring them into a press for quick forming. After the temperature of the component has
dropped below the recristallisation temperature it can be removed and trimmed. The cycle
time of the forming step is very short and can be reduced to 20 s with a fully automated
manufacturing line. For applications like side tail units a welding or glueing process follows.
Organic sheets have a homogenous thickness. When a part is designed, the logical way is to
have more material in areas of high stresses and less material in areas of no or low stresses.
For material with high specific stiffness and strength, material thickness is also an important
factor for an optimisation of weight and cost reduction. For other processes like Liquid
Composites Moulding (LCM), GMT or Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) part
manufacturing with differing wall thickness is state of the art.A one step technology to manufacture load and weight optimised parts has been developed by
bringing in stiffened elements locally for force introduced parts like bearing places or inserts.
Plain sheets, profiles or force introducing are practicable as joining parts to increase the
stiffness of the main sheet. This so-called Tailored Blank Technology (TBT) is discussed in
this thesis.
Tailored Blank Technology means forming and joining in one step. Therefore, a special tool
with three beads and four inserts was manufactured. Three of the inserts have the geometry of
plain sheets or L-profiles and one insert has a round shape. Cylinders are fixed within the
female mould, applying pressure to the inserts. The hydraulic pressure system is adjustable.
An insulation is placed between the female mould and the additional sheets or inserts.
Without insulation it is not possible to heat the inserts above melting temperature.
The Tailored Blank Technology works as follows: The organic sheet is positioned in the
transportation frame. The inserts are placed in the female mould. Then the organic sheet is
heated in an external infrared-heater and the inserts are heated by an infrared-heater, which is
positioned in the press between the mould halves. Sheets and inserts are heated at the same
time, but the inserts are heated from the top surface only. After reaching the desired laminate
temperatures the infrared-heater in the press is removed and the organic sheet is transported
into the press. After forming the organic sheet comes in contact with the inserts and is joined
together. During transportation the laminates cool down at the surfaces. While forming the
organic sheet, it contacts the inserts and the laminates reach their contact or bonding
temperature. Then the temperature of the laminates adapts because of the heat flow from one
sheet to another. The whole cycle requires the same amount of time as the simple forming
step without joining.
First, thermodynamical investigation to determine the contact temperatures of the organic sheet and the inserts was made. The following conditions were assumed: The laminate size is
very large compared to the laminate thickness, therefore heat is only transferred into the top
or bottom surface of the laminates. The heat at the sides is negligible. These conditions are
locally constant for the heat flow process. Thus a one dimensional heat flow in direction of
the laminate is considered. For reflection of the transient heat flow the specific heat capacity,
the density and the coefficient of conductivity of the laminates were determined.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die methodische Anwendung der Harzinjektionssimulation
beschrieben. Hierzu werden drei Hauptaspekte betrachtet.
Zunächst werden die im verwendeten Simulationsmodell getroffenen Vereinfachungen
auf ihre Auswirkung auf die Anwendung der Simulation untersucht. Für geringe
Fließgeschwindigkeiten bis zu 3 cm/s konnte das Gesetz von D’Arcy als grundlegendes
Fließmodell in kommerziell verfügbaren Simulationsprogrammen verifiziert werden.
Die Vereinfachung eines Punktangusses als ein Ein-Knoten-Modell ist hingegen
nicht zulässig, da dadurch eine Singularität im Modell entsteht. Durch ein vierknotiges
Angussmodell kann dieses Problem beseitigt werden.
Im zweiten Teil wird die Beschaffung der Eingabeparameter für die Simulation diskutiert.
Für die besonders schwierig zu messende ungesättigte Permeabilität in Dickenrichtung
wurde ein Modell entwickelt, um diese Permeabilität aus den gesättigten
Werten zu bestimmen, die in der Regel wesentlich einfacher zu ermitteln sind.
Der dritte Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der methodischen Modellauswahl zur
Optimierung des Zeit- und Kostenaufwandes bei der Simulation. Es werden Kriterien
für die Modellauswahl entwickelt und diese anhand zweier sehr unterschiedlicher
Beispiele angewendet. Hierfür wird an einer PKW-Stirnwand für das RTM-Verfahren
und einem Hilfsspant eines Flugzeuges für das RFI-Verfahren die methodische Vorgehensweise
bei einer Harzinjektionssimulation demonstriert.
In this thesis the methodical application of liquid composite molding simulation is
discussed. The main focus is on three aspects: In the first part simplifications of the
simulation model and its influence on the application of the simulation will be shown.
The determination of the input parameters is the topic of the next part. The third section
deals with the methodical choice of simulation models to optimize cost and time
schedule. Using two quite different examples the proceeding in liquid composite
molding simulation is explained.
Basically the simulation could be verified. For both the unidirectional and the two
directional flow for lower and middle flow velocities a good correlation of simulation
and experiment was found. At velocities above 3 cm/s the fit of the simulation results
is significantly reduced. It can be assumed that increasing inertia and friction effects
influence the experimental results and therefore the creeping flow assumption in
D’Arcys law cannot be assumed to be valid. At higher flow velocities of the injected
fluid the simulation model has only a limited validity.
An interesting field was identified modeling an injection point in flow simulation. Using
the FEM it should not be described by a single node as one will obtain a singularity
and therefore unstable simulation results. To avoid this problem the injection port can
be modeled by using four nodes. This description of the injection gate provides sufficient
results.
A challenge in simulation technique is the determination of input parameters. Beside
some very easily obtained parameters such as injection pressure, viscosity of resin
or thermal properties of the used components the permeability of the reinforcement is
a key value. Especially in through thickness direction the for simulation very important
unsaturated permeability of the fiber preform is very difficult to measure due to
the short flow length and the complicated access to the flow front. However, the saturated permeability is comparatively easy to determine.
For unidirectional preforms a model was developed which is able to predict unsaturated
permeability derived by its saturated value. The model is based on an simple
parallel and serial set-up of single permeabilities of flow channel and fiber tows. The
different values of permeabilities in a saturated as well as an unsaturated case are resulting thereby from a compression of the fiber tow due to the surrounding liquid
pressure which leads to an expansion of the inter tow space. In order to describe this
effect a dimensionless compression factor κ is introduced which relates the volume of
the compressed tow to the initial state. When the flow occurs in fiber direction this
effect leads to a raising permeability due to the dominance of the flow channels in the
total permeability while in the case of flow in the perpendicular direction a reduction
can be observed because of the overall reduction of the permeability caused by the
reduction of the fiber tow permeability due to compression. This is due to the fact that
in this case the flow channels do not help the spread of the fluid in flow direction. The
model prediction for saturated and unsaturated flow could be verified in the experiment.
Under the assumption that for the flow in thickness direction we have a similar
flow mechanism as for the in-plane flow of the material perpendicular to the fiber
direction, the values for the unsaturated permeability can be calculated from the
values for the saturated permeability with this model.
A critical parameter of this model is the compression factor κ, which is a function of
the fiber volume fracture and the fluid pressure. For further developments of the
model this dependence has to be analyzed. The aim is here to find a model for the
compression of the fiber tow, so that the experimental determination can be replaced
by a calculation model.
In order to simplify the decision for the dimension of the Finite-Element-Model, an
analytic formula has been developed for the approximated error between the used
2D model and the 3D model. As parameters in this formula we have the relative flow
path (flow path related to the part thickness) and the ratio of the in-plane permeability
and the permeability in thickness direction. The formula is valid for an injection line
with impregnation in thickness direction of the perform.
In further works these results will have to be verified and adjusted for injection points.
A problematic aspect is the computation time as a complete three dimensional model
is required.
Finally the methodical optimization of two injection processes will be demonstrated
on two examples taken from practice. In the first one (front wall of a car) the aspect of
an error tolerant simulation will be discussed. While the simulation seemingly yields an optimal solution under the assumption of constant input values, significant short
comings can be shown for the necessary variation of the parameters due to measurement
errors or qualitative oscillations. Only when the range of all input parameters
is considered in simulation a reliable statement about the stability of the process can
be made. Furthermore, the possibilities of the injection system layout and of the
process optimization by adjustment of the process control will be discussed.
In the second example possibilities are shown to make statements about process
optimization via simulation despite unfavorable boundary conditions. The filling behavior
of a center fuselage side skin of a plane, which was produced with the RFItechnique,
was calculated with the use of a 2D calculation. For this a customized
algorithm was programmed which takes into account a simplified model of RFI. With
the help of this optimization the filling time could be reduced from 168 s to 5.3 s.
All in all the process simulation of resin injection techniques will be able to contribute
fundamentally to process optimization. The major shortcomings still exist in the determination
of parameters, especially in the determination of the permeability. In
order to establish the simulation in industry it will be necessary to do more research
on methods for determination of permeabilities without experiments in the preliminary
stages of the simulation. Only under these requirements the simulation will be attractive
for the user.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, einen Beitrag zur Steigerung der Nutzung von SMC als Werkstoff für Strukturbauteile in Pkw zu leisten. Zunächst wird der Stand des Wis- sens der SMC-Technologie dargestellt. Ebenso sind der aktuelle Stand der Crashsi- mulation aufgearbeitet und die verfügbaren Tools zur Berechnung des Verhaltens von Faserverbundkunststoffen beschrieben.
Aus diesem Zusammenhang erfolgt die Ableitung des Entwicklungsbedarfs zur Nut- zung von SMC als Werkstoff für Strukturbauteile. Zunächst werden das Crashver- halten und das Energieabsorptionsvermögen von SMC-Materialien verschiedener Hersteller und unterschiedlicher Konfiguration untersucht: Standard-SMC- Materialien, SMC mit unidirektionaler Faserverstärkung, Leicht-SMC, Recyclat-SMC, flexibles SMC. Dabei werden verschiedene Probengeometrien (Rechteckrohr mit/ohne Flansch) bei unterschiedlichen Aufprallgeschwindigkeiten geprüft und die Ergebnisse analysiert. Diese Untersuchungen belegen, dass sich mit SMC Energie- absorptionskennwerte erreichen lassen, die über den Kennwerten klassischer Stähle liegen.
Als Fügeverfahren ist für Faserverbundstrukturen die Klebetechnik anzustreben. Aufgrund der Empfindlichkeit von Klebeverbindungen gegen schlagartige Beanspru- chung und der Bestätigung dieses Sachverhaltes bei den durchgeführten Crashver- suchen wurden die Klebeverbindungen der Rechteckrohrproben mit Flansch detail- liert untersucht. Da das Crashverhalten einer solchen Probe in starkem Maße von der Festigkeit der Verbindung abhängt, wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um die Crashtauglichkeit mit einem einfachen Versuch zu prüfen. Das Gesamtsystem (Fü- gepartner und Klebstoff) wurde hinsichtlich seiner Crasheignung bewertet.
lm Rahmen der Arbeiten zur Erstellung eines Modells zur numerischen Beschrei- bung des Materialverhaltens von SMC wurde ausgehend von Materialmodell MT54 in LS-DYNA ein modifiziertes Materialmodell für diesen Werkstoff entwickelt. Dazu erfolgte die Anpassung sowohl des Versagenskriteriums als auch des Nach- versagensverhaltens für SMC. Die Modellierung der Proben geschah nach Richtli- nien, die auch zukünftig bei größeren Strukturen Anwendung finden können. Die Va- lidierung des Materialmodells erfolgte anhand einfacher Rohrproben unter axialer Crashbelastung durch den Vergleich mit experimentellen Ergebnissen. ln den typi- schen Energieabsorptionskennwerten wurde eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen Experiment und Simulation erreicht. lm Folgenden wurden die Anwendbarkeit des Modells im Rahmen der Crashanalyse eines SMC-Längsträgers getestet und Richtli- nien zur Auslegung von crashoptimierten Bauteilen aus SMC abgeleitet. Im letzten Kapitel werden die Ergebnisse der Arbeit zusammengefasst.
The aim of this thesis is the experimental investigation and numerical simulation of the crash behaviour of Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) structures. The report is organised in three sections. The first section focuses on the experimental investiga- tion of the crash behaviour of rectangular SMC tubes with and without flange. The second section presents a test method to estimate the crash performance of adhe- sive joints of SMC. The third section deals with the development and use of a mate- rial model established for the crash simulation of SMC structures. All aspects focus on the fulfilment of typical requirements expected for materials with use in structural application of vehicles.
The experimental investigation included the measurement of standard material prop- erties and crash properties of eleven different SMC materials: six standard types with different fibre content, SMC with unidirectional reinforcement, flexible SMC, low den- sity SMC, natural fibre SMC and SMC with included recycled material. The crash specimen were rectangular tubes with and without flange with the following geomet- ric data: length 250 mm, wall thickness 3 mm, cross section of the tube 50x50 mm (with flange) or 50x25 mm (without flange). Both parts of each specimen were bonded with two different adhesives: a flexible PUR and a brittle EP adhesive. These adhesives were chosen in accordance with the pre-testing results. All crash speci- men were tested in quasistatic (100 mm/min) and dynamic (10 m/s) experimental set-up. All of them failed by progressive crushing with very homogeneous force- deformation curves. The energy absorption reached values up to 30 kJ/kg, which is a higher level than standard metals are able to provide. Special tests with an non axial impact demonstrated the crash capability of a non-optimised specimen up to a slope of 10°. Temperature and humidity reduce the crash performance with an maximum amount of about 17 % compared to vehicle specific boundary conditions.
The crash tests demonstrated the importance of a high quality bonding. The pro- gressive crushing of the rectangular tubes with flange is mainly influenced by the quality of the bonding areas. Some tests of this tubes - performed with other adhe- sives - led to a global and sudden failure of the whole bonding area. This experience led to the development of a new testing method for bonded fibre reinforced polymers (FRP). Literature study led to a transfer of the double cantilever beam testing of FRP to bonding testing of SMC. The state-of-the-art focuses on quasistatic testing. The method is extended to dynamic testing in a drop tower in experimental and theoreti- cal aspects, which allows to observe the crack growth in the adhesive joint while the specimen is under load. The analysis of the test results led to information about the crack-growth velocity, crack initiation energy and energy release rate. The compari- son of test results allows a ranking of adhesives concerning their capability for crashapplication. Different adhesives were included in this investigation. The results sup- ported the former choice of the fixed adhesives.
As mentioned before, today's design process requires the use of standard CAE methods such as crash simulation. The available simulation tools were not capable to consider any FRP-typical material properties. They focus on FRP laminates and need an alignment for each application of the tool. To improve the SMC crash simu- lation a standard material model (MT54 of LS-DYNA) was modified and adapted to SMC. The material is considered to be isotropic in plane. The maximum stress crite- rion proved to be valid for SMC failure in an axial loaded crash structure. The post failure behaviour is adapted to SMC under consideration of numerical based element deletion. The simulation results correspond very well with the test data from experi- ments with rectangular tube with and without flange. The force-deformation curves are quite similar. The used input parameters gave the same accuracy of results for all SMC with randomly distributed glass fibres. The modified simulation tool was veri- fied by the simulation of a longitudinal crash member made of SMC. This conical structure showed in the experiment an increase of the load level during progressive crushing. For the crash simulation of this structure the identical material set up was used as for the rectangular tubes. The results correspond very well with the experi- mental data. To support future development of crash loaded SMC parts an overview of rules to optimise such structures is given in a short summary.
A final conclusion in relation to the requirements for structural SMC parts leads to the following statements: SMC reaches a specific energy absorption level higher than standard metals. The developed test method allows the ranking of bonded SMC specimen concerning their crash performance. The new material model for the crash simulation of axial loaded SMC structures leads to a high level of conformity to ex- perimental data and appears to be very useful to design realistic structures.
Within Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP) manufacturing technologies, Liquid Composite
Moulding (LCM) describes a group of cost efficient processes that provide an outstanding
variety of possibilities for the manufacture of parts of virtually any size and
complexity. In addition to the classic pressure supported Resin Transfer Moulding
(RTM) process, techniques such as the VARTM (Vacuum Assisted RTM), the ARTM
(Advanced RTM) and the SCRIMP® (Seeman Composite Resin Infusion Molding Process)
are well established. Each of the different techniques utilizes the same method – a
thermoset resin is injected into a mould containing the reinforcement. The impregnation
of the reinforcing structure by a resin in a closed mould permits the combination of a
wide range of matrix systems and reinforcing materials. With the gelation and curing of
the resin after the completed injection, the finished part is ready to be demoulded.
The overall process is influenced by many parameters including:
• the reinforcing structure,
• the viscosity and curing properties of the thermoset resin,
• the position of inlet and outlet,
• the pressure distribution throughout the mould and
• the geometry and size of the part.
Though the process chain has to be analysed as one – from the raw materials to the
finished part – the key step within that chain is the injection and impregnation of the porous
reinforcing structure within the closed mould. An inherent property of any porous
material characterized by its ability to let a fluid flow through under the driving force of a
pressure gradient, is the material’s permeability. Because it controls the propagation
velocity of the resin system in the mould, the permeability of the reinforcing material is
crucial for both understanding and modeling the RTM-process. Consequently, measurement and determination of the flow front propagation is necessary to further the development
of the LCM-process and to maximize high volume productions while maintaining
overall quality and process control.
The importance of the reinforcing structure and the effects on the RTM-process make it
clear that a separate evaluation of key characteristics such as permeability is the best way to understand the process. As such, characterizing the permeability of fibre structures
can offer valuable information about the general design of the preform structure as
well as the preform structure’s influence on permeability alterations.
Though the importance of an online control of the in-mould flow propagation processes
is recognized as an important tool, existing efforts to describe and control the flow front
position on a continuous basis have severe problems. Apart from others, the high temperatures
and pressures occurring, the thermosetting materials and their chemistry, as
well as the high geometrical complexity of moulds are issues to be taken into account
during the development of new mould integrated sensor systems.
A customized Capacitive Condensator Reading System (CCRS) provides the ability to
incorporate the above features with a continuous online determination of the flow-front
position in closed moulds. The condensator is integrated within the mould surface and is
able to measure the spreading of the resin by the differentiation of the complex dielectric
constant of air and resin. This system resolves the particularly difficult problem of
gathering data concerning the permeability of conductive fabrics (i.e. of carbon fibre
fabrics), which cannot be measured by a standard capacity sensor. Investigation and
experimental work lead to the result that (although exhibiting a ‘Faraday’s cage’) by
using an insulated sensor and a newly developed and customized electronic data
acquisition system the propagation of a fluid can be determined.
As a result, the newly developed capacitive sensor system allows the online determination
of the flow front propagation of liquid systems in both non electric conducting and
conducting reinforcing structures throughout the injection processes in closed moulds.
When compared to existing measurement methods, the benefits of the Capacitive Condensator
Reading System are:
• online continuous determination of flow front propagation,
• online data acquisition for permeability calculations,
• online fibre volume fraction control,
• online cavity height control,
• online curing documentation
and the ability to • allow high volume fractions and injection pressures,
• withstand high tool and resin temperatures,
• allow any geometry within the tool.
With the understanding that the process chain is a complex production cycle with its
various interacting elements and the possibility to document these completely in an
overall quality and process control, the realization of the potentials of the LCMtechnologies
will perform even more outstanding manufacturing possibilities for high
quality and high volume productions in the future.
The goal of this thesis was to improve the surface quality of highly reinforced polymer
composites in order to make these materials applicable to the painted exterior of passenger
cars.
For the evaluation of the application sector of automotive exterior components, a catalogue of
requirements was drawn up from technical specifications, internal standards, and legal
requirements. Components in the horizontal decorative section of the outer skin, like front hood,
boot lid, and roof, have to fulfil the highest optical and structural requirements. A survey of the
automobile market concerning applications of fibre reinforced plastics in the exterior of cars
showed the state of the art and certain tendencies. So far, only non-reinforced, short-fiber- or
random-fiber-reinforced plastics have been able to fulfil the high suriace requirements. Up to
now, high material prices, the lack of mass production concepts, and insufficient suriace quality
have prohibited serial applications of CFRP in the outer skin of passenger cars. Therefore,
different manufacturing technologies for exterior components in composites were examined and
compared in an overview of processes. The process of resin transfer moulding (RTM) was
identified to have great potential for serial production:because of its achievable suriace quality
together with high specific mechanical properties of 1he composites.
The goal of the current research was to find optimized combinations of materials, processes,
and coatings, in order to realize a Class-A suriace quality for CFRP parts in the RTM process.
The main problem with the suriace quality is the print-through of the reinforcement caused by
the inhomogeneous distribution of the reinforcing fibres and the chemical and thermal shrinkage
of the matrix material during processing. In order to periom a systematic investigation of the
composite materials, the process parameters, and surtace treatments, an experimental RTM
tool with a plate cavity was designed and produced in the suriace quality standard of a serial
tool.
Within the material optimization the comparison of five epoxy resins showed that the system 82
was the most promising for further investigations with regard to surface quality and cycle time.
Within the comparison of the fibre reinforcements, the woven fabrics displayed a minor surface
quality compared to the non-woven and non-crimp fabrics. lt was found out that multiaxial
stitched fabrics with optimized placement technique, texturized, multifilament stitching yarns,
and trikot-franse stitching pattern currently provide the best combination of surface quality and
processability, Even better surface results were achieved with non-crimp fabrics that are fixed
by an adhesive to a polyester mesh. However, the difficult processing and infiltration with matrix
material still provide a hurdle to a possible serial application. As a result of the investigation, one
type of randomly oriented cut glass mat with minimal fibre diameter and even fibre distribution
was preferred as a core material to the commonly used continuous strand mats. Within the
great variety of different surface veils, a few types could be identified to offer an effective
reduction of long term waviness (from LW>20 to LW<20) and short term waviness (from SW>35 to SW<15). These selected surface veil types are mechanically or binder fixed and made of
glass or PAN fibres with an areal weight of 50 to so g/m2
.
Statistical methods for the design of experiments and the analysis of the results were used in
the process optimization with the epoxy system 82. After the identification of the main predictors
and responses a D-optimal experimental plan was designed and perfomed. The method of
multiple regression was used to create a process modell which describes the observed system
behaviour and deviation to a very high degree.
It was discovered that high pressures on the liquid matrix system right after injection contribute
to a high surface quality by compensating a great part of the reaction shrinkage. fn order to
achieve high pressures in the cavity exceeding 100 bar, the processing af)d tooling equipment
was modified beyond conventional RTM process capabilites. Optimal settings for vacuum and
temperature difference depend on tool temperature and post pressure levels. The simultaneous
analysis of curing temperature and demoulding time showed that the best surface quality can be
achieved if the part is demoulded from the tool as soon as the saturation T9, depending on the
current tool temperature, is reached. Longer curing times neither increase the T9 of the part nor
do they improve surface quality. From these results a first strategy for high suriace quality can
be derived with a high tool temperature and a short demoulding time. The second strategy with
a !ow tool temperature and a long demoulding time, however, is easier and safer to periom in
terms of process stability.
In order to compare highly reactive thermoset matrix materials and to measure the volume
shrinkage throughout the whole reaction, a novel shrinkage measurement cell, or dilatometer,
was designed. This created the new opportunity to determine the processing shrinkage in its
chemically and thermally induced proportions depending on matrix material, curing temperature,
and time. Because of the good correlation of the laboratory results with the previous RTM
experiments, a high experimental effort for hardware investigations to characterize new epoxy
systems can be saved in the future. Matrix system 82 displayed the lowest shrinkage values in
combination with a high reactivity. It could also be observed that a great proportion of the
reaction shrinkage takes place very quickly after the start of reaction. Therefore, the post
pressure on the matrix system must be applied as early as possible in order to compensate this
shrinkage. Curing at lower temperatures always leads to lower chemical and thermal shrinkage.
In comparison to literature the newly developed method presented in this thesis provides
plausible results with high accuracy, and for the first time also for highly reactive thermoset
systems.
Suriace coatings offer the opportunity to reduce or cover surface structures and defects in order
to achieve a high quality of the painted part surface. The exploration of in-process coatings lead
to thermoplastic films and gel-coats as technologies with a high potential for the improvement of
surface quality. In comparison, epoxy surfacing films and inmould-powder-coatings result in
more effort to adapt the materials and application methods0to the current RTM process. It was
shown that the post-process coating with a plastic paint system contributes to an improvement of the surface quality. In this study different priming coat materials and thicknesses were
identified that cover part of the surface texture with an acceptable structure of the coat itself. In
addition, two surface finishing methods with manual sanding were found to raise the surface
quality of the painted part up to the required standard if required.
The results of the different subsystems materials, RTM-process, and surface coatings can be
combined in different combinations of various emphasis to the overall system of the painted
ATM-part, complying with the requirements of the specific outer skin region.
Short-term solutions for outer skin parts with vertical surfaces {as A-, B-, C-pillars, sills, or rear
side wings) were found and proven with sample plates for the first time. In order to achieve the
high quality required for horizontal exterior components (as front hood, roof, and trunk lid) at the
current state of development, a higher performance of the subsystems is necessary. But even
for this Class-A suriace quality, sample parts could be produced for the first time with high effort
in the ATM-process. At the beginning of this investigation, sample plates produced in RTM
displayed surtace waviness values of LW>35 and strong fibre marking over the whole surtace.
With the combination of optimization results, sample plates with LW<5 could be produced. A
visual evaluation could not determine any regular, oriented surface texture.
The presented work showed solutions in material-process-coating-combinations and
development potential to reach the required Class-A surface quality of automobile exterior parts
with advanced composites. This provides the necessary foundation for further developments
with the aim of a serial application.
Abstract
The main theme of this thesis is about Graph Coloring Applications and Defining Sets in Graph Theory.
As in the case of block designs, finding defining sets seems to be difficult problem, and there is not a general conclusion. Hence we confine us here to some special types of graphs like bipartite graphs, complete graphs, etc.
In this work, four new concepts of defining sets are introduced:
• Defining sets for perfect (maximum) matchings
• Defining sets for independent sets
• Defining sets for edge colorings
• Defining set for maximal (maximum) clique
Furthermore, some algorithms to find and construct the defining sets are introduced. A review on some known kinds of defining sets in graph theory is also incorporated, in chapter 2 the basic definitions and some relevant notations used in this work are introduced.
chapter 3 discusses the maximum and perfect matchings and a new concept for a defining set for perfect matching.
Different kinds of graph colorings and their applications are the subject of chapter 4.
Chapter 5 deals with defining sets in graph coloring. New results are discussed along with already existing research results, an algorithm is introduced, which enables to determine a defining set of a graph coloring.
In chapter 6, cliques are discussed. An algorithm for the determination of cliques using their defining sets. Several examples are included.
Molekulardynamische Simulation chiraler flüssigkristalliner Phasen Im Rahmen der Arbeit wird erstmals die Polymorphie chiraler flüssigkristalliner Phasen mit Hilfe von Molekulardynamik-Simulationen untersucht. Am Beispiel des Modellsystems des chiralen Gay-Berne-Fluids, das bisher ausschließlich mittels Monte Carlo-Simulationen untersucht wurde, wird das Phasendiagramm in Abhängigkeit von Temperatur und Druck bestimmt. Ein Ziel ist insbesondere die Untersuchung der dynamischen Selbstdiffusionseigenschaften in chiralen Phasen in Abhängigkeit von Temperatur und Druck. Im Fall der im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung stehenden cholesterischen Phase werden die Zusammenhänge zwischen Selbstdiffusionseigenschaften und Gleichgewichtshelixganghöhe beziehungsweise Ordnungsparameter bestimmt.