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‘Dioxin-like’ (DL) compounds occur ubiquitously in the environment. Toxic responses associated with specific dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) include dermal toxicity, immunotoxicity, liver toxicity, carcinogenicity, as well as adverse effects on reproduction, development, and endocrine functions. Most, if not all of these effects are believed to be due to interaction of these compounds with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR).
With tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) as representatively most potent congener, a toxic equivalency factor (TEF) concept was employed, in which respective congeners were assigned to a certain TEF-value reflecting the compound’s toxicity relative to TCDD’s.
The EU-project ‘SYSTEQ’ aimed to develop, validate, and implement human systemic TEFs as indicators of toxicity for DL-congeners. Hence, the identification of novel quantifiable biomarkers of exposure was a major objective of the SYSTEQ project.
In order to approach to this objective, a mouse whole genome microarray analysis was applied using a set of seven individual congeners, termed the ‘core congeners’. These core congeners (TCDD, 1-PeCDD, 4-PeCDF, PCB 126, PCB 118, PCB 156, and the non dioxin-like PCB 153), which contribute to approximately 90% of toxic equivalents (TEQs) in the human food chain, were further tested in vivo as well as in vitro. The mouse whole genome microarray revealed a conserved list of differentially regulated genes and pathways associated with ‘dioxin-like’ effects.
A definite data-set of in vitro studies was supposed to function as a fundament for a probable establishment of novel TEFs. Thus, CYP1A induction measured by EROD activity, which represents a sensitive and yet best known marker for dioxin-like effects, was used to estimate potency and efficacy of selected congeners. For this study, primary rat hepatocytes and the rat hepatoma cell line H4IIE were used as well as the core congeners and an additional group of compounds of comparable relevance for the environment: 1,6-HxCDD, 1,4,6-HpCDD, TCDF, 1,4-HxCDF, 1,4,6-HpCDF, PCB 77, and PCB 105.
Besides, a human whole genome microarray experiment was applied in order to gain knowledge with respect to TCDD’s impact towards cells of the immune system. Hence, human primary blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from individuals and exposed to TCDD or to TCDD in combination with a stimulus (lipopolysaccharide (LPS), or phytohemagglutinin (PHA)). A few members of the AhR-gene batterie were found to be regulated, and minor data with respect to potential TCDD-mediated immunomodulatory effects were given. Still, obtained data in this regard was limited due to great inter-individual differences.
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls are persistent environmental pollutants which ubiquitously occur as complex mixtures and accumulate in the food and feed chain due to their high lipophilic properties. Of the 419 possible congeners, only 29 share a common mechanism of action and cause similar effects, the so called dioxin-like compounds. Dioxin-like compounds evoke a broad spectrum of biochemical and toxic responses, i.e. enzyme induction, dermal toxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity as well as adverse effects on reproduction, development, and the endocrine system in laboratory animals and in humans. Most, if not all, of the aforementioned responses, are mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. In the present work, the elicited biochemical effects of a selection of dioxin-like compounds and the non dioxin-like PCB 153 were examined in mouse (in vivo) and in human liver cell models (in vitro). Emphasis was given to the main contributors to the total toxic equivalents in human blood and tissues TCDD, 1-PnCDD, 4-PnCDF, PCB 118, PCB 126, and PCB 156, which likewise contribute about 90 % to the dioxin-like activity in the human food chain.
Three mouse in vivo studies were carried out aiming to characterize the alterations in hepatic gene expression as well as the induction of hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes after single oral dose. Based on the results obtained from mouse 3-day and 14-day studies, the seven test compounds can be categorized into three classes; the ones which are 'pure' AhR ligands (TCDD, 1-PnCDD, 4-PnCDF, and PCB 126) or solely CAR inducers (PCB 153), and the ones which are AhR/CAR mixed-type inducers (PCB 118, PCB 156). Moreover, the analysis of hepatic gene expression patterns after a single oral dose of either TCDD or PCB 153 revealed that the altered genes fundamentally differed. Profiling of significantly altered genes led to the conclusion that changes in gene expression were associated with different signalling pathways, in fact by AhR and CAR.
For investigating the role of the AhR in mediating biological responses, several experimental approaches were carried out, such as the analysis of blood plasma metabolites in Ahr knockout and wild-type mice. Genotype specifics and similarities were determined by HPLC-MS/MS analysis. Several plasma metabolites could be identified in both genotypes, but also differences were detected. Furthermore, an in vivo experiment was performed aiming to characterize AhR-dependent and -independent effects in female Ahr knockout and wild-type mice. For this purpose, mice received a single oral dose of TCDD and were killed 96 h later. Microarray analysis of mouse livers revealed that although the Ahr gene was knocked out in Ahr-/- mice, the quantity of affected genes were in the same order of magnitude as for Ahr+/+ mice, but the pattern of altered genes distinctly differed. In addition, the relative liver weights of TCDD-treated Ahr+/+ mice were significantly increased which led to the conclusion, that TCDD induced the development of hepatic steatosis in female Ahr wild-type.
The performed in vitro experiments aimed to characterize the effects elicited by selected DLCs and PCB 153 in human liver cell models by the use of HepG2 cells and primary human hepatocytes. In general, primary human hepatocytes were less responsive than HepG2 cells. This was not only observed in EC values derived from EROD assay, but also regarding microarray analysis in terms of differently regulated genes. In vitro REPs gained from both liver cell models widely confirmed the current TEFs, but some deviations occurred. The comparison of the TCDD-altered genes in both human cell types revealed that only a considerably small number of genes was in common up regulated by both human liver cell models, such as the established AhR-regulated highly inducible cytochrome P450s 1A1, 1A2, and 1B1 as well as other AhR target genes. Although the overlap was rather small, the TCDD-induced genes could be consistently associated with the broad spectrum of established dioxin-related biological responses. The gene expression pattern in primary human hepatocytes after treatment with selected DLCs (TCDD, 1-PnCDD, 4-PnCDF, and PCB 126) and PCB 153 was additionally characterized by microarray analysis. The highest response in terms of significantly altered genes was determined for TCDD, followed by 4-PnCDF, 1-PnCDD, and PCB 126, whereas exposure to PCB 153 did not evoke any significant changes in gene expression. The pattern of significantly altered genes was very homogenous among the four congeners. Genes associated with well-established DLC-related biological responses as well as novel dioxin-inducible target genes were identified, whereby an extensive overlap in terms of up regulated genes by all four DLCs occurred. In conclusion, the results from the in vitro experiments performed in primary human hepatocytes provided fundamental insight into the congeners' potencies and caused alterations in gene expression patterns. The obtained findings implicate that although the extent of enzyme inducibilities varied, the gene expression patterns are coincidental. Microarray analysis identified species-specific (mouse vs. human) as well as model-specific (in vitro vs. in vivo and transformed cells vs. untransformed cells) differences. In order to identify novel biomarkers for AhR activation due to treatment with dioxin-like compounds, five candidates were selected based on the microarray results i.e. ALDH3A1, TIPARP, HSD17B2, CD36, and AhRR. Eventually, ALDH3A1 turned out to be the most reliable and suitable marker for exposure to DLCs in both human liver cell models eliciting the highest mRNA inducibility among the five chosen candidates. In which way these species- and cell type-specific markers are involved in the dioxin-elicited toxic responses should be further characterized in vivo and in vitro.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem signaltransduzierenden Zwei-Komponenten- System CiaRH aus Streptococcus pneumoniae. Zwei-Komponenten-Systeme sind an der Adaptation der Bakterien an Umweltbedingungen entscheidend beteiligt. Sie bestehen in der Regel aus einer Histidinkinase (hier CiaH) und einem Responseregulator (hier CiaR). Die Histidinkinase dient der Signaldetektion und Aktivierung des Responseregulators, welcher die zelluläre Antwort vermittelt. Das Cia-System wurde als Resistenzdeterminante in spontanresistenten Labormutanten gegen Cefotaxim identifiziert. Weiterhin hat dieses Zwei-Komponenten-System Einfluss auf die Zelllyse, die Virulenz und ist an der Regulation der genetischen Kompetenz beteiligt. Es wird für die Lebensfähigkeit von Zellen mit PBP2x-Punktmutationen benötigt. Inhaltlicher Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit war neben der Etablierung der Mikroarray-Technik und globalen Transkriptionsanalysen die funktionelle Charakterisierung des Cia-Systems mit phänotypischen Analysen. Die Etablierung der Mikroarray-Technik befasste sich mit allen Schritten des Mikroarray-Prozesses inklusive Biochip-Herstellung, Datenauswertung und der Validierung des Oligo-Sets. Nach erfolgreicher Etablierung wurde diese Technik benutzt, um Cia-regulierte Gene zu identifizieren. Durch Vergleich des Transkriptoms von verschiedenen Cia-Mutanten mit dem Wildtyp R6 wurden insgesamt 158 Gene unterschiedlich transkribiert. Davon gehörten 73 Gene zum minimalen Cia- und zum Kompetenz-Regulon, welche schon als Cia-reguliert bekannt waren (Sebert et al., 2002; Mascher et al., 2003; Dagkessamanskaia et al., 2004). Überraschenderweise wurden weitere 85 Gene Cia-abhängig transkribiert, deren Genprodukte funktionell in Zucker- und Stickstoffmetabolismus sowie Transport gruppiert werden konnten. Wahrscheinlich wurden die meisten dieser 85 Gene indirekt als Folge der veränderten Zuckerverwertung reguliert. Ähnliche funktionelle Gengruppen konnten in den globalen Transkriptionsanalysen der spontanresistenten Laborfamilie C103 bis C503 aufgestellt werden. In dieser Mutantenfamilie sind Mutationen in CiaH, PBP2x und PBP2a gefunden worden. Besonders auffällig war bei diesen Untersuchungen die kontinuierliche Verstärkung der Transkription der Gene des minimalen Cia-Regulons von C103 bis C503. Deshalb ist von einer Aktivierung des Cia-Systems durch PBP-Mutationen auszugehen. Diese Aktivierung konnte auch in RT-PCR-Versuchen am Beispiel einzelner Gene des minimalen Cia-Regulons bestätigt werden. Da das Cia-System durch PBP-Mutationen aktiviert wird und ein funktionelles Cia-System bei Anwesenheit von bestimmten PBP2x-Mutationen benötigt wird, wurde in dieser Arbeit diese Notwendigkeit des Cia-Systems auch bei anderen PBP-Mutationen durch phänotypische Analysen überprüft. Dabei wurde durch Inaktivierung des Cia-Systems in verschiedenen Stämmen festgestellt, dass nicht nur Zellen mit einzelnen, im Labor selektierten PBP2x-Mutationen, sondern auch ohne ein PBP2a- und ohne ein PBP1a-Protein auf ein Cia-System angewiesen sind. Klinische PBP2x-Allele benötigten ebenfalls – aber in geringeren Maßen – das Cia-System. Wahrscheinlich haben in diesen kompensatorische Mutationen durch Evolution in der freien Natur stattgefunden. Damit wurde auch zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass PBP-Mutationen nicht neutral sind und verschiedene PBP-Mutationen unterschiedliche Auswirkungen haben. Weiterhin wurde untersucht, welche Gene tatsächlich die durch das Cia-System verursachten Phänotypen auslösen. Dazu wurden 6 Cia-regulierte Genregionen bzw. Einzelgene mit einer Erythromycin-Resistenzkassette inaktiviert und auf das Vorhandensein von Cia „OFF“-phänotypischem Verhalten analysiert. Kein Gen konnte für das Resistenz- oder das Lyseverhalten ausfindig gemacht werden. Hingegen waren die Proteine HtrA und Spr0782 an der Reprimierung der Kompetenz durch das Cia-System beteiligt. Bei beiden Proteinen konnte nur eine Reprimierung in CpH8- und nicht in THB-Medium nachgewiesen werden, so dass eventuell noch von weiteren Faktoren ausgegangen werden muss. Die hier vorgelegten Ergebnisse haben die bisher vorliegenden Daten über das Cia-System bestätigt und entscheidende Einblicke nicht nur in die mögliche Funktion, sondern vor allem in das komplexe vernetzte Regulationssystem gegeben. Diese stellen eine wichtige Grundlage für weitere Experimente dar.