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In this thesis, we have dealt with two modeling approaches of the credit risk, namely the structural (firm value) and the reduced form. In the former one, the firm value is modeled by a stochastic process and the first hitting time of this stochastic process to a given boundary defines the default time of the firm. In the existing literature, the stochastic process, triggering the firm value, has been generally chosen as a diffusion process. Therefore, on one hand it is possible to obtain closed form solutions for the pricing problems of credit derivatives and on the other hand the optimal capital structure of a firm can be analysed by obtaining closed form solutions of firm's corporate securities such as; equity value, debt value and total firm value, see Leland(1994). We have extended this approach by modeling the firm value as a jump-diffusion process. The choice of the jump-diffusion process was a crucial step to obtain closed form solutions for corporate securities. As a result, we have chosen a jump-diffusion process with double exponentially distributed jump heights, which enabled us to analyse the effects of jump on the optimal capital structure of a firm. In the second part of the thesis, by following the reduced form models, we have assumed that the default is triggered by the first jump of a Cox process. Further, by following Schönbucher(2005), we have modeled the forward default intensity of a firm as a geometric Brownian motion and derived pricing formulas for credit default swap options in a more general setup than the ones in Schönbucher(2005).
In contrast to the spatial motion setting, the material motion setting of continuum mechanics is concerned with the response to variations of material placements of particles with respect to the ambient material. The material motion point of view is thus extremely prominent when dealing with defect mechanics to which it has originally been introduced by Eshelby more than half a century ago. Its primary unknown, the material deformation map is governed by the material motion balance of momentum, i.e. the balance of material forces on the material manifold in the sense of Eshelby. Material (configurational) forces are concerned with the response to variations of material placements of 'physical particles' with respect to the ambient material. Opposed to that, the common spatial (mechanical) forces in the sense of Newton are considered as the response to variations of spatial placements of 'physical particles' with respect to the ambient space. Material forces as advocated by Maugin are especially suited for the assessment of general defects as inhomogeneities, interfaces, dislocations and cracks, where the material forces are directly related to the classical J-Integral in fracture mechanics, see also Gross & Seelig. Another classical example of a material - or rather configurational - force is emblematized by the celebrated Peach-Koehler force, see e.g. the discussion in Steinmann. The present work is mainly divided in four parts. In the first part we will introduce the basic notions of the mechanics and numerics of material forces for a quasi-static conservative mechanical system. In this case the internal potential energy density per unit volume characterizes a hyperelastic material behaviour. In the first numerical example we discuss the reliability of the material force method to calculate the vectorial J-integral of a crack in a Ramberg-Osgood type material under mode I loading and superimposed T-stresses. Secondly, we study the direction of the single material force acting as the driving force of a kinked crack in a geometrically nonlinear hyperelastic Neo-Hooke material. In the second part we focus on material forces in the case of geometrically nonlinear thermo-hyperelastic material behaviour. Therefore we adapt the theory and numerics to a transient coupled problem, and elaborate the format of the Eshelby stress tensor as well as the internal material volume forces induced by the gradient of the temperature field. We study numerically the material forces in a bimaterial bar under tension load and the time dependent evolution of material forces in a cracked specimen. The third part discusses the material force method in the case of geometrically nonlinear isotropic continuum damage. The basic equations are similar to those of the thermo-hyperelastic problem but we introduce an alternative numerical scheme, namely an active set search algorithm, to calculate the damage field as an additional degree of freedom. With this at hand, it is an easy task to obtain the gradient of the damage field which induces the internal material volume forces. Numeric examples in this part are a specimen with an elliptic hole with different semi-axis, a center cracked specimen and a cracked disc under pure mode I loading. In the fourth part of this work we elaborate the format of the Eshelby stress tensor and the internal material volume forces for geometrically nonlinear multiplicative elasto-plasticity. Concerning the numerical implementation we restrict ourselves to the case of geometrically linear single slip crystal plasticity and compare here two different numerical methods to calculate the gradient of the internal variable which enters the format of the internal material volume forces. The two numerical methods are firstly, a node point based approach, where the internal variable is addressed as an additional degree of freedom, and secondly, a standard approach where the internal variable is only available at the integration points level. Here a least square projection scheme is enforced to calculate the necessary gradients of this internal variable. As numerical examples we discuss a specimen with an elliptic inclusion and an elliptic hole respectively and, in addition, a crack under pure mode I loading in a material with different slip angles. Here we focus on the comparison of the two different methods to calculate the gradient of the internal variable. As a second class of numerical problems we elaborate and implement a geometrically linear von Mises plasticity with isotropic hardening. Here the necessary gradients of the internal variables are calculated by the already mentioned projection scheme. The results of a crack in a material with different hardening behaviour under various additional T-stresses are given.
Discontinuities can appear in different fields of mechanics. Some examples where discontinuities arise are more obvious such as the formation of cracks. Other sources of discontinuities are less apparent such as interfaces between different materials. Furthermore continuous fields with steep gradients can also be considered as discontinuous fields. This work aims at the inclusion of arbitrary discontinuities within the finite element method. Although the finite element method is the most sophisticated numerical tool in modern engineering, the inclusion of discontinuities is still a challenging task. Traditionally within finite the framework of FE methods discontinuities are modeled explicitely by the construction of the mesh. Thus, when a fixed mesh is used, the position of the discontinuity is prescribed by the location of interelement boundaries and not by the physical situation. The simulation of crack growth requires a frequent adaption of the mesh and that can be a difficult and computationally expensive task. Thus a more flexible numerical approach is needed which leads to the mesh-independent representation of the discontinuity. A challenging field where the accurate description of discontinuities is of vital importance is the modeling of failure in engineering materials. The load capacity of a structure is limited by the material strength. If the load limit is exceeded failure zones arise and increase. Representative examples of failure mechanisms are are cracks in brittle materials or shear bands in metals or soils. Failure processes are often accompanied by a strain softening material behaviour (decreasing load carrying capacity with increasing strain at a material point). It is known that the inclusion of strain softening material behaviour within a continuum description requires regularization techniques to preserve the well- posedness of the governing equations. One possibility is the consideration of non-local or gradient terms in the constitutive equations but these approaches require a sufficiently fine discretization in the localization zone, which leads to a high numerical effort. If the extent of the failure zone and the failure process to the point of the development of discrete cracks is considered it seems reasonable to include strong discontinuities. In the framework of fracture mechanics the inclusion of displacement jumps is intuitively comprehensible. However, the modeling of localized failure processes demands the consideration of inelastic material behaviour. Cohesive zone models represent an approach which is especially suited for the incorporation within the finite element framework. It is supposed that cohesive tractions are transmitted between the discontinuity surfaces. These tractions are constitutively prescribed by a phenomenological traction separation law and thus allow for the modeling of different inelastic mechanisms, like micro-crack evolution, initiation of voids, plastic flow or crack bridging. The incorporation of a displacement discontinuity in combination with a cohesive traction separation law leads to a sound model to describe failure processes and crack propagation. Another area where the existence of discontinuities is not as obvious is the occurence of material interfaces, inclusions or holes. The accurate modeling of such internal interfaces is important to predict the mechanical behaviour of components. The present discontinuity is of different nature: the displacement field is continuous but there is a jump in the strains, which is denoted by the expression weak discontinuity. Usually in FE methods material interfaces are taken into account by the mesh construction. But if the structure exhibits multiple inclusions of complex geometry it can be advantageous if the interface does not have to be meshed. And when we look at at problems where the interface moves with time, e. g. phase transformation, the mesh-independent modeling of the weak discontinuities naturally holds major advantages. The greatest challenge in the modeling of discontinuities is their incorporation into numerical methods. The focus of the present work is the development, analysis and application of a finite element approach to model mesh-independent discontinuities. The method shall be robust and flexible to be applicable to both, strong and weak discontinuities.
The topic of this thesis is the coupling of an atomistic and a coarse scale region in molecular dynamics simulations with the focus on the reflection of waves at the interface between the two scales and the velocity of waves in the coarse scale region for a non-equilibrium process. First, two models from the literature for such a coupling, the concurrent coupling of length scales and the bridging scales method are investigated for a one dimensional system with harmonic interaction. It turns out that the concurrent coupling of length scales method leads to the reflection of fine scale waves at the interface, while the bridging scales method gives an approximated system that is not energy conserving. The velocity of waves in the coarse scale region is in both models not correct. To circumvent this problems, we present a coupling based on the displacement splitting of the bridging scales method together with choosing appropriate variables in orthogonal subspaces. This coupling allows the derivation of evolution equations of fine and coarse scale degrees of freedom together with a reflectionless boundary condition at the interface directly from the Lagrangian of the system. This leads to an energy conserving approximated system with a clear separation between modeling errors an errors due to the numerical solution. Possible approximations in the Lagrangian and the numerical computation of the memory integral and other numerical errors are discussed. We further present a method to choose the interpolation from coarse to atomistic scale in such a way, that the fine scale degrees of freedom in the coarse scale region can be neglected. The interpolation weights are computed by comparing the dispersion relations of the coarse scale equations and the fully atomistic system. With this new interpolation weights, the number of degrees of freedom can be drastically reduced without creating an error in the velocity of the waves in the coarse scale region. We give an alternative derivation of the new coupling with the Mori-Zwanzig projection operator formalism, and explain how the method can be extended to non-zero temperature simulations. For the comparison of the results of the approximated with the fully atomistic system, we use a local stress tensor and the energy in the atomistic region. Examples for the numerical solution of the approximated system for harmonic potentials are given in one and two dimensions.
The validity of formulas w.r.t. a specification over first-order logic with a semantics based on all models is semi-decidable. Therefore, we may implement a proof procedure which finds a proof for every valid formula fully automatically. But this semantics often lacks intuition: Some pathological models such as the trivial model may produce unexpected results w.r.t. validity. Instead, we may consider just a class of special models, for instance, the class of all data models. Proofs are then performed using induction. But, inductive validity is not semi-decidable -- even for first-order logic. This theoretical drawback manifests itself in practical limitations: There are theorems that cannot be proved by induction directly but only generalizations can be proved. For their definition, we may have to extend the specification. Therefore, we cannot expect to prove interesting theorems fully automatically. Instead, we have to support user-interaction in a suitable way. In this thesis, we aim at developing techniques that enhance automatic proof control of (inductive) theorem provers and that enable user-interaction in a suitable way. We integrate our new proof techniques into the inductive theorem prover QuodLibet and validate them with various case studies. Essentially, we introduce the following three proof techniques: -We integrate a decision procedure for linear arithmetic into QuodLibet in a close way by defining new inference rules that perform the elementary steps of the decision procedure. This allows us to implement well-known heuristics for automatic proof control. Furthermore, we are able to provide special purpose tactics that support the manual speculation of lemmas if a proof attempt gets stuck. The integration improves the ability of the theorem prover to prove theorems automatically as well as its efficiency. Our approach is competitive with other approaches regarding efficiency; it provides advantages regarding the speculation of lemmas. -The automatic proof control searches for a proof by applying inference rules. The search space is not only infinite, but grows dramatically with the depth of the search. In contrast to this, checking and analyzing performed proofs is very efficient. As the search space also has a high redundancy, it is reasonable to reuse subproofs found during proof search. We define new notions for the contribution of proof steps to a proof. These notions enable the derivation of pruned proofs and the identification of superfluous subformulas in theorems. A proof may be reused in two ways: upward propagation prunes a proof by eliminating superfluous proof steps; sideward reuse closes an open proof obligation by replaying an already found proof. -For interactive theorem provers, it is essential not only to prove automatically as many lemmas as possible but also to restrict proof search in such a way that the proof process stops within a reasonable amount of time. We introduce different markings in the goals to be proved and the lemmas to be applied to restrict proof search in a flexible way: With a forbidden marking, we can simulate well-known approaches for applying conditional lemmas. A mandatory marking provides a new heuristics which is inspired by local contribution of proof steps. With obligatory and generous markings, we can fine-tune the degree of efficiency and extent of proof search manually. With an elaborate case study, we show the benefits of the different techniques, in particular the synergetic effect of their combination.
Uncoupling protein1 (UCP1) in brown adipose tissue was discovered earlier as the main uncoupling source of respiration. We describe the basic facts and a modest contribution of our group to the area of research on mitochondrial uncoupling proteins. After defining the terms uncoupling, leak, proton-mediated uncoupling, we discuss the assumption that due to its low abundance, uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) can provide only mild uncoupling, i.e. can decrease the proton motive force by several mV only. A fatty acid cycling mechanism is described as a plausible explanation for the protonophoretic function of all uncoupling proteins together with our experiments supporting it. A speculation for the phylogenesis of all uncoupling proteins can be deduced by estimated UCP2 content in several tissues, and details of its activation are explained on the basis of our experiments. In the present study a solubilization and refolding method for UCP2 from inclusion bodies was developed and characterized. As it was known and also demonstrated from previous experiments on UCP1 that fatty acids are substrates, we used the same procedure to study the function of UCP2. Utilizing spin-labelled fatty acids (SLFA) for our experiments we demonstrated the binding of fatty acids to UCP2, and the competition of other natural fatty acids like oleic acid, palmitic acid, arachidonic acid and eicosatrienoic acid to the preformed complex emphasizes the presence of a fatty acid binding site for mitochondrial UCP2. The findings were observed by EPR spectroscopy where the highly immobilized spectra with presence of spin-labelled fatty acid eventually end up as free spin label spectra with a particular concentration of the natural fatty acid added to the UCP2 bound with spin-labelled fatty acid. This fits in significantly with the earlier findings of UCP1 and also leads to assumption of functional explanation about the physiological relevance between the uncoupling proteins functions. The present study, in which representative and sensitive parameters for EPR spectroscopy were established, at the same time describes the concentration effects of fatty acids upon the protein bound with spin-labelled fatty acids which are much of importance in comparison to physiological levels, being in the micromolar range (µM) as compared with milli molar (mM) as for UCP1 previously. In appropriate examples, different fatty acids are used and compared with competitors like alkylsulfonates also emphasizing the function of the protein. And the studies with the effect of nucleotides inhibition demonstrate that there exists a putative binding site for fatty acids. Much significance lies in demonstration with the spin-labelled-ATP studies where competition of ATP to the protein bound to spin-labelled ATP explains about the inhibition effect of nucleotides on the UCP2. So the present study applies different methods for the functional characterization of UCP2. The studies of natural fatty acids and alkylsulfonates with UCP2 bound to spin-labelled fatty acid, and study of nucleotide inhibition on UCP2 are closely related and give the much awaited answer to the question of functional similarities between UCP1 and UCP2. This supports the discussion of many groups which predict the functional similarity between these two proteins based upon sequence homology. Also many attempts have been reported in literature to explain the physiological functional relevance where by this present study can also be added to as we now suppose from the present conclusions of our experiments.
In this thesis diverse problems concerning inflation-linked products are dealt with. To start with, two models for inflation are presented, including a geometric Brownian motion for consumer price index itself and an extended Vasicek model for inflation rate. For both suggested models the pricing formulas of inflation-linked products are derived using the risk-neutral valuation techniques. As a result Black and Scholes type closed form solutions for a call option on inflation index for a Brownian motion model and inflation evolution for an extended Vasicek model as well as for an inflation-linked bond are calculated. These results have been already presented in Korn and Kruse (2004) [17]. In addition to these inflation-linked products, for the both inflation models the pricing formulas of a European put option on inflation, an inflation cap and floor, an inflation swap and an inflation swaption are derived. Consequently, basing on the derived pricing formulas and assuming the geometric Brownian motion process for an inflation index, different continuous-time portfolio problems as well as hedging problems are studied using the martingale techniques as well as stochastic optimal control methods. These utility optimization problems are continuous-time portfolio problems in different financial market setups and in addition with a positive lower bound constraint on the final wealth of the investor. When one summarizes all the optimization problems studied in this work, one will have the complete picture of the inflation-linked market and both counterparts of market-participants, sellers as well as buyers of inflation-linked financial products. One of the interesting results worth mentioning here is naturally the fact that a regular risk-averse investor would like to sell and not buy inflation-linked products due to the high price of inflation-linked bonds for example and an underperformance of inflation-linked bonds compared to the conventional risk-free bonds. The relevance of this observation is proved by investigating a simple optimization problem for the extended Vasicek process, where as a result we still have an underperforming inflation-linked bond compared to the conventional bond. This situation does not change, when one switches to an optimization of expected utility from the purchasing power, because in its nature it is only a change of measure, where we have a different deflator. The negativity of the optimal portfolio process for a normal investor is in itself an interesting aspect, but it does not affect the optimality of handling inflation-linked products compared to the situation not including these products into investment portfolio. In the following, hedging problems are considered as a modeling of the other half of inflation market that is inflation-linked products buyers. Natural buyers of these inflation-linked products are obviously institutions that have payment obligations in the future that are inflation connected. That is why we consider problems of hedging inflation-indexed payment obligations with different financial assets. The role of inflation-linked products in the hedging portfolio is shown to be very important by analyzing two alternative optimal hedging strategies, where in the first one an investor is allowed to trade as inflation-linked bond and in the second one he is not allowed to include an inflation-linked bond into his hedging portfolio. Technically this is done by restricting our original financial market, which is made of a conventional bond, inflation index and a stock correlated with inflation index, to the one, where an inflation index is excluded. As a whole, this thesis presents a wide view on inflation-linked products: inflation modeling, pricing aspects of inflation-linked products, various continuous-time portfolio problems with inflation-linked products as well as hedging of inflation-related payment obligations.
The study provides insights into the dynamic processes of vascular epiphyte vegetation in two host tree species of lowland forest in Panama. Further, a novel approach is presented to examine the possible role of host tree identity in the structuring of vascular epiphyte communities: For three locally common host tree species (Socratea exorrhiza, Marila laxiflora, Perebea xanthochyma) we created null models of the expected epiphyte assemblages assuming that epiphyte colonization reflected random distribution of epiphytes in the forest. In all three tree species, abundances of the majority of epiphyte species (69 – 81 %) were indistinguishable from random, while the remaining species were about equally over- or underrepresented compared to their occurrence in the entire forest plot. Permutations based on the number of colonized trees (reflecting observed spatial patchiness) yielded similar results. Finally, a Canonical Correspondence Analysis also confirmed host-specific differences in epiphyte assemblages. In spite of pronounced preferences of some epiphytes for particular host trees, no epiphyte species was restricted to a single host. We conclude that the epiphytes on a given tree species are not simply a random sample of the local species pool, but there are no indications of host specificity either. To determine the qualitative and quantitative long-term changes in the vascular epiphyte assemblage of the host tree Socratea exorrhiza, in the lowland forest of the San Lorenzo Crane Plot, we followed the fate of the vascular epiphyte assemblage on 99 individuals of this palm species, in three censuses over the course of five years. The composition of the epiphyte assemblage changed little during the course of the study. While the similarity of epiphyte vegetation decreased on single palm individuals through time, the similarity analyzed over all palms increased. Even well-established epiphyte individuals experienced high mortality with only 46 % of the originally mapped individuals surviving the following five years. We found a positive correlation between host tree size and epiphyte richness and detected higher colonization rates of epiphytes per surface area on larger trees. Epiphyte assemblages on single Socratea exorrhiza trees were highly dynamic while the overall composition of the epiphyte vegetation on the host tree species in the study plot was rather stable. We suggest that higher recruitment rates due to localized seed dispersal by already established epiphytes on larger palms promote the colonization of epiphytes on larger palms. Given the known growth rates and mortality rates of the host tree species, the maximum time available for colonization and reproduction of epiphytes on a given Socratea exorrhiza tree is estimated to be about 60 years. Changes in the epiphyte vegetation of c. 1000 individuals of the host tree species Annona glabra at Barro Colorado Island over the course of eight year were documented by means of repeated censuses. Considerable increase in the abundance of the dominating epiphyte species and ongoing colonization of the host tree species suggests that the epiphyte vegetation has not reached a steady state in the maximal 80 years since the establishment of the host tree. Epiphyte species composition as a whole was rather stable. We disentangled the relationship between epiphyte colonization and tree size/available time for colonization with the finding that tree size explained only a low proportion of colonization while other factors like connectivity to dispersal source and time explain may explain a larger part. Epiphyte populations are patchily distributed and examined species exhibit properties of a metapopulation with asynchronous local population growth, high local population turnover, a positive relationship between regional occurrence and patch population size, and negatively correlated relationship between extinction and patch occupancy. The documented metapopulation processes highlight the importance of not colonized suitable habitat for the conservation of epiphytes.
Matter-wave Optics of Dark-state Polaritons: Applications to Interferometry and Quantum Information
(2006)
The present work "Materwave Optics with Dark-state Polaritons: Applications to Interferometry and Quantum Information" deals in a broad sense with the subject of dark-states and in particular with the so-called dark-state polaritons introduced by M. Fleischhauer and M. D. Lukin. The dark-state polaritons can be regarded as a combined excitation of electromagnetic fields and spin/matter-waves. Within the framework of this thesis the special optical properties of the combined excitation are studied. On one hand a new procedure to spatially manipulate and to increase the excitation density of stored photons is described and on the other hand the properties are used to construct a new type of Sagnac Hybrid interferometer. The thesis is devided into four parts. In the introduction all notions necessary to understand the work are described, e.g.: electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT), dark-state polaritons and the Sagnac effect. The second chapter considers the method developed by A. Andre and M. D. Lukin to create stationary light pulses in specially dressed EIT-media. In a first step a set of field equations is derived and simplified by introducing a new set of normal modes. The absorption of one of the normal modes leads to the phenomenon of pulse-matching for the other mode and thereby to a diffusive spreading of its field envelope. All these considerations are based on a homogeneous field setup of the EIT preparation laser. If this restriction is dismissed one finds that a drift motion is superimposed to the diffusive spreading. By choosing a special laser configuration the drift motion can be tailored such that an effective force is created that counteracts the spreading. Moreover, the force can not only be strong enough to compensate the diffusive spreading but also to exceed this dynamics and hence to compress the field envelope of the excitation. The compression can be discribed using a Fokker-Planck equation of the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck type. The investigations show that the compression leads to an excitation of higher-order modes which decay very fast. In the last section of the chapter this exciation will be discussed in more detail and conditions will be given how the excitation of higher-order modes can be avoided or even suppressed. All results given in the chapter are supported by numerical simulatons. In the third chapter the matterwave optical properties of the dark-state polaritons will be studied. They will be used to construct a light-matterwave hybrid Sagnac interferometer. First the principle setup of such an interferometer will be sketched and the relevant equations of motion of light-matter interaction in a rotating frame will be derived. These form the basis of the following considerations of the dark-state polariton dynamics with and without the influence of external trapping potentials on the matterwave part of the polariton. It will be shown that a sensitivity enhancement compared to a passive laser gyroscope can be anticipated if the gaseous medium is initially in a superfluid quantum state in a ring-trap configuration. To achieve this enhancement a simultaneous coherence and momentum transfer is furthermore necessary. In the last part of the chapter the quantum sensitivity limit of the hybrid interferometer is derived using the one-particle density matrix equations incorporating the motion of the particles. To this end the Maxwell-Bloch equations are considered perturbatively in the rotation rate of the noninertial frame of reference and the susceptibility of the considered 3-level \(\Lambda\)-type system is derived in arbitrary order of the probe-field. This is done to determine the optimum operation point. With its help the anticipated quantum sensitivity of the light-matterwave hybrid Sagnac interferometer is calculated at the shot-noise limit and the results are compared to state-of-the-art laser and matterwave Sagnac interferometers. The last chapter of the thesis originates from a joint theoretical and experimental project with the AG Bergmann. This chapter does no longer consider the dark-state polaritons of the last two chapters but deals with the more general concept of dark states and in particular with the transient velocity selective dark states as introduced by E. Arimondo et al. In the experiment we could for the first time measure these states. The chapter starts with an introduction into the concept of velocity selective dark states as they occur in a \(\Lambda\)-configuration. Then we introduce the transient velocity selective dark-states as they occur in an particular extension of the \(\Lambda\)-system. For later use in the simulations the relevant equations of motion are derived in detail. The simulations are based on the solution of the generalized optical Bloch equations. Finally the experimental setup and procedure are explained and the theoretical and experimental results are compared.
The primary object of this work is the development of a robust, accurate and efficient time integrator for the dynamics of flexible multibody systems. Particularly a unified framework for the computational dynamics of multibody systems consisting of mass points, rigid bodies and flexible beams forming open kinematic chains or closed loop systems is developed. In addition, it aims at the presentation of (i) a focused survey of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism for dynamics, (ii) five different methods to enforce constraints with their respective relations, and (iii) three alternative ways for the temporal discretisation of the evolution equations. The relations between the different methods for the constraint enforcement in conjunction with one specific energy-momentum conserving temporal discretisation method are proved and their numerical performances are compared by means of theoretical considerations as well as with the help of numerical examples.